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Sidney E. Chernick, a Canadian national, was employed by the World Bank from 1969 to 1990. Chernick graduated from the University of Manitoba and gained a Master's Degree from the University of Toronto and a Ph.D. from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Prior to joining the Bank, Chernick was employed by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) in Paris, the United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America (ECLA) in Santiago, and, for five years, by the United Nations in New York. He also taught Economics at the University of Melbourne.

Chernick began his employment at the World Bank as an economist in the Central America and Caribbean Department (CAC) in 1969. He was promoted to Senior Economist in 1970.

In 1972 he joined the newly created Policy, Planning and Program Review Department; he would remain in the Department until its termination in 1982. (The Department had different acronyms over the years: EPR from 1972 to 1977 and PPR from 1977 to 1982. It was also referred to as PPPRD and PP&PR.) The basic functions of the PPPRD were to identify development policy issues, to prepare or coordinate analysis of alternative program and policies, and to supervise the presentation of policy papers at the appropriate level of management. It provided guidelines for analysis in economic reports and country programs and reviewed country programs before their submission to the President to ensure the quality of economic analysis, consistency with Bank development objectives, and consideration of alternative strategies.

The PPPRD consisted of only two divisions during its existence: the Policy Planning Division (PPRPP) and the Program Review Division (PPRPR). Chernick was named Division Chief of the Program Review Division in or around September of 1973 and reported directly to PPPRD Director, Hahbub ul Haz. (Ul Haz and the PPPRD, in turn, reported to Hollis B. Chenery, Vice President of the Office of the Vice President Development Policy [DPS].) Chernick's division was responsible for:

• Establishing guidelines for the content of Economic Reports and, in cooperation with the Programming and Budgeting Department, of Country Program Papers;

• Managing the review of Economic Reports and Country Program Papers in close collaboration with the Regional Offices and the Programming and Budgeting Department with a view to evaluating alternative policy options for management;

• Evaluating the annual and 5-year country economic work program of the Regional Offices;

• Maintaining communication links between the DPS and the Regional Offices on issues of development strategy and Bank policy at the country or regional levels;

• Analyzing selected economic development issues of Bank-wide relevance and ad hoc questions raised by management; and

• Providing support for selected economic missions.

In the spring of 1976, Chernick was named Senior Advisor in PPPRD and would serve in this capacity until the Bank's and PPPRD's reorganization in 1982. He would also serve as Acting Director at various times during the decade in which he was a PPPRD staff member.

In February of 1982, Chernick was named Assistant Director of the newly-established Country Policy Department (CPD). The CPD replaced the PPPRD and assumed its functions and much of its staff (as well as staff from the former Development Economics Department [DED]). Chernick's main responsibilities in the CPD included:

• Providing advice and support to the regions on designing assistance strategies and preparing CPPs, structural adjustment and other program lending, and carrying out policy dialogue with member countries;

• Serving management through reviews of CPPs and country economic and sector work plans, through advice on lending allocation, and through work on operational policy issues;

• Conducting applied research and preparing papers on such issues as trade strategies, resource mobilization, economic management, employment productivity and welfare;

• Acting as a secretariat for the Operations Policy Sub-Committee of the Managing Committee.

In June 1983, Chernick was named a Senior Advisor of CPD.

In January of 1984, Chernick moved to the South Asia Country Programs Department (ASADR) under the title of Senior Economist. Chernick's activities involved: supporting the design and quality of economic and sector work by undertaking regional, country, and project analyses; and raising the capacity of the practitioners by providing guidance, organizing training courses and regional seminars, and participating actively in recruitment.

On November 1, 1986, Chernick joined the Economic Development Institute (EDI, later the World Bank Institute [WBI]), the Bank's capacity development branch. Chernick was named the Advisor on Senior Policy Seminars in the Institute's Front Office. These seminars, beginning in the mid-1980s, offered short policy-related seminars to high-level government officials that would explore issues, alternatives, and likely implementation problems in bringing about policy improvements. Chernick remained in this position until he retired from the World Bank in 1990.

Hollis Burnley Chenery was born January 6, 1918 in Richmond, Virginia. He received a Ph.D. in economics from Harvard University in 1950.

From 1949 - 1950, he worked at the U. S. Economic Cooperation Administration in Paris, and from 1950 - 1952, he was chief of the Program Division at the U.S. Mutual Security Agency in Rome. He returned to U. S. government service in 1961, serving at the United States Agency for International Development until 1965.

From 1952 to 1961, Hollis Chenery was a professor of economics at Stanford University. From 1965 to 1970 and again in 1983, he was a professor of economics at Harvard University.

Chenery served as The Economic Advisor to the President of the World Bank from September 1970 to September 1972. In October 1972, he became Vice President, Development Policy (VPD) following the Bank's Reorganization in 1972. In May 1982, he became the Vice President of the Economics and Research Staff (VPERS). He resigned from that position in September 1982 and remained on the Bank staff as a Senior Adviser until February 1, 1983.

Hollis Chenery died September 1, 1994.

The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) established a centralized files system on September 30, 1946 with the issuance of Administrative Order No. 3, "Organization of the Communications and Records Services". Initially reporting to the Bank Vice President, the Communications and Records unit was responsible for opening and routing all incoming written official wire, mail, and other communications, dispatching all outgoing written official communications, and maintaining the centralfiles location of official correspondence created by Bank departments and offices.

According to the 1947 Administration Manual, "each office and department will forward Bank records received or created by it, as soon as they cease to be working papers" to the General Files. Initially only the Secretary's Department, Treasurer, Loan, Research, and Legal Departments were authorized to maintain their own files outside of the General Files. Executive Directors' minutes, agenda, and similar documents were also excluded from the centralized files, except those distributed by the Secretary for filing.

Beginning in 1948 through the next decade, file collections from Loan, Economics (formerly Research), Legal, and Technical Operations Departments as well as the Economic Development Institute were incorporated into the Central Files. As the Bank grew to include the International Finance Corporation (IFC) in 1956 and International Development Association (IDA) in 1960, the Central Files included records of those entities as well.

The centralized files were organized according to a Bank-wide classification system and files were traditionally divided into four groups: general files (or non-regional files); operational files (country-specific or regional files) generated mostly by the Loan and Economic Departments; membership, bond and finance files; and official documents mostly legal in nature including loan agreements.

The Communications and Records unit succeeded by the Central Files Section (ADMCF), theGeneral Files Section (ADMGF) and the Records Management Section (later under the Information Solutions Department) were responsible for classifying and maintaining official files from 1946 to 1987. In practice however, official files were incomplete and fragmentary, as departments often kept their own files for convenience or did not forward official correspondence to Central Files once it was no longer required for business.

By the 1960s the maintenance of a central filing system had become progressively cumbersome as the growth of Bank Group operations had resulted in an increasingly large volume of files. As a result, decentralization of some department files began occurring in 1960 with the Legal Department. By late 1967, other departments considered to be specialized including Treasurer, Economic Development Institute, and the Personnel Division of the Administration Department were also authorized to keep their own files.

The physical relocation of Central Files from the Bank's main complex tothe tenth floor of the G Street building in May 1970 also led to the sharp decrease in the use of Central Files and an increase of duplicate sets of working files in the divisions and departments throughout the Bank. In response to this problem, Central File Stations were created and located in close physical proximity to their primary users, although the files remained under the administrative control of the Records Management Section. The IFC Files Station was the first to become a satellite file stationin June 1971 followed by the Bank Administration and Policy (BAP) Central Files Stations (1972 - 1974). These were renamed BAP Central Records Stations (1975 - 1977) and then the Non-Regional Information Centers (NRIC, 1978 - 1987). From 1972 to 1987 these satellite records stations served Administration, Operations Policy, Economic Research and External Relations Vice Presidencies, among other non-regional departments.

As a result of the Bank's July 1987 reorganization of the records management function, Non-Regional Information Centers were closed and recordkeeping responsibilities were turned over to the records-creating offices.

Omer Hursit Calika was born in Kayseri, Turkey, in 1918. He studied economics at Istanbul University and worked for the Turkish Ministry of Finance in various posts from 1940 to 1953. From 1953-1954 he was the Alternate Governor for Turkey for the World Bank.

Calika joined the World Bank in 1954, serving as an economist in the Department of Europe, Africa, and Australia. In 1957 he became the division chief for the United Kingdom and Dependencies in the same department, serving until 1963. He then moved to the Africa Department where he was division chief for East and Central Africa during 1964-1965 and assistant to the director of the department from 1966-1968. Calika joined the Education Project Department in 1968 where he served as deputy director until 1972.

As part of the general reorganization of the Bank in November 1972, Calika became the assistant to the director of the Latin American and Caribbean Projects Department. In 1974 he became the chief of the Caribbean Division of the Latin American andCaribbean Projects Department, and in 1977 he became the assistant to the director of the country programs department for Latin America. He retired in 1980.

Omer Hursit Calika died on 15 March 2014.

Jaime Biderman was born in 1949. He joined the World Bank in 1973 as a researcher in the Economic Department's Urban and Regional Economics Division (ECDRB). The following year Biderman entered the Bank's Young Professionals Program (YPP). Upon his completion of the Program in 1976, Biderman was made an Economist in the Transportation and Urban Projects Department's Urban Division (TRUD2). Shortly thereafter the two sectors, Transport and Urban Development, were separated and Biderman was placed in the newUrban Projects Department (URB). Note that while following the 1972 Bank-wide reorganization most sector departments were only responsible for policy formulation and quality control, URB functioned as a centralized operating projects department, meaning that it provided a full operational package of technical services to the regional operational vice presidencies. This included the planning, direction, and supervision of project work.

Biderman took an extended leave from the World Bank from 1978 to 1983.Upon his return he continued his work as an Economist in the Urban Development sector. Regionalization of URB and project planning and supervision functions had, however, begun in 1979. Thus when Biderman joined the East Asia and Pacific Regional Vice Presidency's Urban and Water Supply Division (AEPUW) in 1983, its functions included the full operational package of responsibilities within the East Asia and Pacific Regional Vice Presidency (AENVP). Biderman remained in the AEPUW through 1987.

In 1987 Biderman moved to the Africa Vice Presidency's Department 6 (AF6) responsible for overseeing lending operations in Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. Biderman worked as a Senior Economist in the Department's Country Operations Division (AF6CO).

In 1991, following a brief period in the Development Economic's Policy and Review Department (PRD), Biderman was named Senior Country Officer in the Europe and Central Asia Vice Presidency (ECA).

In 1994 Biderman was named Operations Adviser in the Operations Policy Department (OPR). OPR was responsible for operational policy development, portfolio management monitoring and evaluation, and procurement guidance and policy, among other activities. Biderman worked in the Department's Policy Group (OPRPG).

In 1998 Biderman returned to the Africa Vice Presidency (AFR) and would remain there until 2009. During this period Biderman held a variety of positions in a number of AFR's divisions. These included:

• Lead Specialist,Operations Support 1 (AFTS1, 1998-1999)

• Lead Specialist, Operational Quality and Knowledge (AFTQK, 1999-2000)

• Operations Adviser, Operational Quality and Knowledge (AFTQK, 2001)

• Operations Adviser, Quality and Knowledge Operations Support (AFTOS, 2002)

• Sector Manager, Water and Urban 1 (AFTU1, 2002-2008)

• Sector Manager, Urban and Water (AFTUW, 2009)

Biderman served as an Adviser in 2010 and 2011 in an unspecified role before retiring from the Bank in 2011. In [year], he returned as a consultant for a variety of Bank units, including the Independent Evaluation Group (IEG).

Benjamin B. King joined the World Bank in 1947 as an economist. During his long career he served in various parts of the Bank: the Economics Department (1947-1949, 1950-1952, 1965-1967), Office of the President (1949-1950), Europe, Africa & Australasia Department (1952-1957), Economic Development Institute (1957-1962), South Asia and Middle East Department (1962-1965), South Asia Department (1967-1970), Special Projects Department (1970-71), Economics Program Department (1971-1972), and Development Policy Staff (1974-1978). He completed his career as the Director, Development Economics Department, 1978-1981. From 1972-1974 King was seconded from the World Bank to serve as an adviser to the Canadian International Development Agency.

The origins of agricultural and rural development sector work in the Bank began with the establishment of the Agriculture Division (TODAG) in the Technical Operations Department (TOD) in 1953. TODAG was created alongside the Transportation Division (TODTP), Industry Division (TODIN), and Public Utilities Division (TODPU). TOD responsibilities included:

• investigating and appraising the development efforts of member countries and advising area departments of developmental priorities;

• appraising proposed projects and advising area department on their organizational, managerial economic, financial and engineering feasibility;

• assisting in the negotiation of projects;

• supervising approved projects;

• assisting borrowers in their procurement efforts;

• monitoring developments in the various sectors of member countries' economies and preparing studies as required; and

• selecting consultants for the examination of projects.

In 1965, the TOD was terminated and its divisions were transferred to the newly established Projects Department (PRJ) with division functions unchanged. TODAG became the Projects Department Agriculture Division (PRJAG).

In November 1968, PRJAG was upgraded to the Agriculture Projects Department (AGP). The AGP was created in a 1968 reorganization of all projects staff, which provided for the upgrading of the former projects divisions into projects departments. This was done to recognize their increased responsibilities and workload, and to strengthen the working relationship with the area departments responsible for project operations by according them equal status. AGP reported to the Office of the Director for the Projects Department (DRP). In November 1968, Lionel J. C. Evans assumed the role of AGP Director. The AGP responsibilities included:

• providing advice on agriculture sector problems to the area departments;

• preparing pre-investment studies to identify developmental priorities in the agriculture sector of member countries;

• appraising proposed projects, or assisting in the preparation of projects for countries unable to do so;

• providing operational support in the negotiation and administration of loans and credits, in procurement matters, in selecting consultants and in writing terms of reference;

• supervising projects as regards their construction and operation; monitoring developments in the sectors of member countries' economies; and

• cooperating with other international agencies on programs of common interest.

On the date of its establishment, the AGP consisted of the following divisions: the Irrigation Division I (AGPD1); the Irrigation Division II (AGPD2); the Agricultural Credit Division I (AGPC1); the General Agriculture Division (AGPG1); the Agricultural Industry Division (AGPND); the Livestock Division (AGPLK); the Economics Division (AGPED); and Technical Assistance Division (AGPTA). In late 1970, the AGPED and the AGPTA were merged into the Economics and Pre-Investment Division (AGPEC). In March 1971, the General Agriculture Division I(AGPG1) was split, and half of its staff transferred into the new General Agriculture Division II (AGPG2).

As part of the World Bank reorganization in October 1972, most of the AGP's staff was transferred to regional projects departments in the newly established Regional Vice Presidencies in order to more effectively fuse country knowledge and technical skills. This left AGP with a core staff performing essentially advisory services for the Regions at their request, in addition to ongoing operational policy development and research and quality control with regard to agriculture project and sector work. As a sector department, it was also responsible for the formulation of development policy and defining possible strategies for long-term growth in the agricultural sector. The AGP that emerged from the 1972 reorganization did not have any formal divisional structure, and reported to the Central Projects Vice Presidency (CPS). In 1973, Montague Yudelman replaced Lionel J. C. Evans, and assumed the role of AGPDirector.

On September 1, 1973, a Rural Development Division (AGPRD) was established in the renamed Agriculture and Rural Development Department (AGP). The new division was given the task of formulating and implementing new project concepts aimed at assisting the rural poor in developing countries. This new division was a response to a speech given by Bank President Robert McNamara in Nairobi, Kenya of the same year, which addressed the issues of the rural poor. Related to the new focus on rural poor,the Secretariat of the Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research (AGPCG) was also transferred in November 1973 from the International Relations Department (IRD) to the Agriculture Department, but removed shortly after in 1974 when it was upgraded to an independent department.

In early 1975, a new Economics and Resources Unit (AGPER) was established in the AGP. On November 1, 1975, the AGP absorbed the nutrition functions from the Population and Nutrition Department (PNP), and placed them in a new Nutrition Division (AGPNU). It also established a new Rural Operations Review and Support Unit (AGPOR) to monitor its rural development program and assist the Regions on rural development project missions through the provision of staff, consultants, and briefs.

On July 1, 1977, new acronyms were assigned to the Agriculture and Rural Development Department (AGR), and its subordinate divisions of the Rural Development Division (AGRRD), the Nutrition Division (AGRNU), the Rural Operations Review and Support Division (AGROR), and Economics and Policy Division (AGREP). On April 1, 1979, the support unit for the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) was transferred from the Front Office of the Vice President of Central Projects (CPSIF) to AGR, and retained its name with the new acronym AGRIF.

In October 1979, the Nutrition Division of the Agriculture Department (AGRNU) was closed and its staff transferred to the newly created Population, Health and Nutrition Department (PHN0001). On July 1, 1980, the Operational Review and Support Unit (AGROR) in the Agriculture Department was replaced by the Monitoring and Evaluation Unit (AGRME).

As part of the reorganization of the Central Projects Staff (CPS) into the Operations Policy Staff (OPS) in February 1982, the AGR regionalized its Rural Development Division (AGRRD), and established a new Agriculture Research Unit (AGRES). In mid-1984, the advisory staff of AGR was structured into three new units: the Finance Agro-Industries and Fisheries Unit (AGRFA); the Production and Technology Unit (AGRPT); and the Water and Resources Unit (AGRWR).

In September 1984, Donald C. Pickering replaced Montague Yudelman as AGR Director. Pickering was soon after replaced by G. Edward Schuh as AGR Director in December 1984.

In spring 1986, the Water and Resources Unit (AGRWR) and the Production and Technology Unit (AGRPT) were merged into the Production, Technology and Resources Division (AGRPR). A unit for the Special Program for African Agricultural Research, or SPAAR, was also established in AGR under the new acronym AGRSP.

As part of the 1987 Bank reorganization, the majority of AGR sector staff were transferred to a restructured Agriculture and Rural Development Department (AGR) in the newly established Policy and Research Vice Presidency (PRE). Other AGR staff were transferred to operational units within the Bank's project-focused Regional Vice Presidencies where they were placed in the Agriculture Division of each Region's Technical Department (formerly Projects Department) or in Agriculture Operations Divisions within the new Country Departments. Staff remaining in AGR were responsible for:

• formulating policies and strategies for the agricultural sector and developing new initiatives and Bank products;

• conducting the supporting research, including the improvement of research capabilities in developing countries, and management of external research funded by the Research Support Budget;

• improving methodology and identifying best practices;

• performing ex-post evaluation of the Bank's agriculture sector work;

• providing operational support;

• liaising with Non-Bank organizations and professionals active in this sector; and

• assisting in recruitment and training of staff.

The reorganized AGR consisted of two divisions: the Agriculture Development Division (AGRDE) and the Agriculture Production and Services Division (AGRPS). Further, the Special Program for African Agricultural Research (AGRSP) was subordinated to the front office of AGR. In 1988, AGRDE was replaced by the Agricultural Policies Division (AGRAP). In May 1987, Viljay S. Vyas replaced G. Edward Schuh as AGR Director, and served as Acting AGR Director until 1988. Vyas was replaced by Michel J. Petit in 1988.

On January 1, 1990, AGR started reporting to the Vice President of Sector Policy and Research (PRS). This reporting structure was maintained after PRS was renamed Vice President of Sector and Operations Policy (OSP) on December 1, 1991. The Agriculture Production and Services Division (AGRPS) was also replaced in December 1991 by the Agriculture Technology and Natural Resources Division (AGRTN).

As part of the Bank-wide 1993 reorganization, the Agriculture and Rural Development Department was renamed Agriculture Technology and Natural Resources Department (AGR), and transferred to the newly-established Vice Presidency for Environmentally Sustainable Development (ESD). Further, the natural resources function was taken out of the Agriculture Technology and Natural Resources Division (AGRTN), which was renamed Agriculture Technology and Services Division (AGRTN), and established as an independent Natural Resources Division (AGRNR).

In 1994, Alexander F. McCalla assumed the role of AGR Director. In May 1995, AGR was restructured and the divisions were replaced by the Agriculture and Forestry Systems Division (AGRAF), and the Sector Policy and Water Resources Division (AGRPW).

As part of the 1997 World Bank reorganization, the AGR was terminated and its functions transferred to the Rural Development Department (RDV) located in the Environmentally and Socially Sustainable Development Network (ESSD). RDV was created alongside the Environment Department (ENV) and Social Development Department (SDV). At its establishment, the RDV consisted of a Global Water Unit, and the Agricultural Research and Extension Group (ESDAR). In May 1999, RDV added the following thematic groups: agricultural production systems intensification; natural resource management; rural institutions and markets; and strategy and policy.

In late 2000, Robert L. Thompson replaced Alexander McCalla as RDV Director. In 2001, the thematic areas were replaced by new groups and themes, including: the Commodities Group (RDVCG); rural portfolio; policy and strategy; science and technology; water resource management; land management; forestry management; and commodities risk management.

In 2002, RDV was renamed the Agriculture and Rural Development Department (ARD). Kevin Cleaver assumed the role of ARD Director the same year. In 2003, ARD added thematic areas in agriculture trade, water for agriculture, and fisheries. Sometime around 2008, ARD thematic areas were restructured to include the following groups: agribusiness; agricultural technology; commodities risk management; fisheries; forestry; land tenure; land use management; livestock; policy and strategy; portfolio management; rural finance; and water and food.

The operations function of the World Bank has, in one form or another, been organized by geographic region throughout the Bank's history. While the units responsible for World Bank lending and technical assistance have changed frequently in name and status since the Bank began operations in 1946, the Africa Region (AFR) has remained relatively constant. One exception is the permanent transfer of responsibility for Northern African countries (specifically, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, Tunisia, and Algeria) from AFR to the Middle East and North Africa Region (MNA) in 1968. Thus, from 1968 to the present the Bank's Africa Region consists exclusively of sub-Saharan African countries. Another exception was the separation of AFR into Eastern and Western African regions between 1968 and 1987.

1946 - 1952

Of the twenty-eight original International Bank of Reconstruction and Development (IBRD, also known as the World Bank) Articles of Agreement signatories, only three were African: South Africa, Ethiopia, and Egypt. While the Bank engaged with and, in a few instances, offered loans to non-member African countries over the next two decades, no other African countries joined the World Bank again until 1957 when the removal of colonial powers from the continent had begun.

Upon the Bank's opening in 1946, operational lending was executed out of the Loan Department (LOD). The LOD was responsible for developing loan operation policy, receiving and investigating loan inquiries, presenting loan inquiries to Bank management forconsideration, and negotiating loans. The organizational structure of LOD fluctuated over its seven year history but was, for the majority of the time, organized geographically. The Bank's focus in these early years was on post-World War II reconstruction - particularly in Europe - and this is reflected by the initial divisional organization of the LOD. Of the seven original divisions, four dealt with Europe and two with the Western Hemisphere. One division was responsible for the two continents of Asia and Africa: the Asiatic-African Division.

In 1948, the seven divisions were briefly consolidated into two (the European and United Kingdom Division and the Latin American, Asiatic and African Division). Then, in November of 1948, divisions were abolished altogether, as loans were assigned to loan officers on an ad hoc basis. In 1950, LOD was again divided into three geographical areas: Latin America Division; Asia and the Middle East Division; and European Division. Noticeably, the African region was not represented at this time.

Parallel to the LOD was the Economic Department (ECD) which conducted sector analysis and research work. Between 1946 and 1952, the ECD was responsible for both functional and geographic analyses, i.e. general economic studies and country specific studies. ECD supported the LOD and its loan administration and advised member countries on their economic and sector development plans. The ECD also liaised with international organizations on economic research. It alsoprovided staff forBank staff missions from the Bank's DC headquarters to countries to conduct both economic and project-focused research. Like the LOD, the organization of the ECD reflected the Bank's focus on post-war Europe. The Department initially consisted of three area divisions (with Africa located in its "Development Areas Division" alongside Latin America, the Middle East, and South Asia) and an Economic Technology Division responsible for specialized sector studies. In August 1948 a new organizational structure featuring two area divisions was installed. Area Division I was responsible for Europe and Area Division II was divided into four sections of which Africa and the Middle East was one. In March 1950 another reorganization divided the Department into an advisory staff and an area staff, the latter consisting of three divisions of which Europe and Africa was one.

While much of the Bank's initial attention was focused on post-war countries in Western Europe and the developing nations of South America, the Bank investigated possibilities for investment in Africa immediately upon beginning operations. The first mission to African countries occurred in March of 1950 when Vice President Robert Garner visited South Africa and Southern and Northern Rhodesia. That same month, the Bank sent a mission to Ethiopia to evaluate an application for funding. This six-week mission resulted in the first funding for an African country. Ethiopia received loans for two projects: Loan 0031 Highway Project (01) included $5 million for rehabilitation and maintenance of road system and Loan 0032 Development Bank Project included $2 million for a new development bank. World Bank loans for South Africa, the Democratic Republic of Congo, and Southern Rhodesia followed in 1951 and 1952.

1952 - 1972

Largely due to an expansion in operations in less developed countries, a Bank-wide reorganization took effect in September of 1952. The new operational structure endured for the next twenty years. LOD staff were combined with the country-related staff from the ECD to form three distinct geographical Area Departments: Western Hemisphere (WHM); Europe, Africa and Australasia (EAA); and Asia and Middle East (AME). These units were primarily responsible for World Bank-member country relations. Functions included: loan policy and plan development; country development program appraisal and review; preparation of proposed loans; and country economic monitoring.

There was no formal divisional structure within EAA. The Department was led by A. S. G. Hoar between 1952 and 1955. Sydney Raymond Cope became Department Director in June of 1955. All three Area Departments reported to Vice President Robert Garner from 1952 to 1956. After Garner became President of the new International Finance Corporation (IFC) in 1956, the Area Departments reported to J. Burke Knapp and William Iliff.

As part of the1952 reorganization, the sector-oriented staff of the former ECD formed the Technical Operations Department (TOD) in the new Area Departments and was placed in charge of project appraisal and supervision. Specifically, the TOD was responsible for: the appraisal of proposed projects; advising Area Departments on proposed projects and assisting in negotiations; supervising approved projects and assisting borrowers in procurement efforts; and monitoring and reporting on member countries' sector economies.

Bank operations in Africa continued to expand in subsequent years. In September 1953 the Bank's first General Survey Mission to an African country - Nigeria - was undertaken. In March 1955, funding for the first regional project in Africa was agreed upon. "Loan 0110 Railways and Harbours Project": http://www.worldbank.org/projects/P000620/railways-harbours-project?lang=en financed harbor improvement of multiple ports on the east coast of the continent as well as four railway lines in the region. In 1960, the position of Special Representative for Africa was announced. The position, initially held by Henry R. Labouisse but replaced soon after by Leonard Rist, was responsible for maintaining liaison with governments, keeping the Bank informed about developments in Africa and recommending approaches to be taken.

As African countries began to achieve independence in the 1950s, the Bank enjoyed a dramatic increase in membership by African countries beginning in 1957. Between 1957, when there were still only two sub-Saharan members, and 1967, 32 African countries joined the World Bank. By 1962, this increase of member countries in Africa, together with the attendant increase in lending activities, necessitated the split of the EAA. Two new departments were created out of the former EAA: the Department of Operations - Europe (EUP) and the Department of Operations - Africa (AFR). Pierre L. Moussa was named department director of AFR.

In the early 1960s, the Bank received requests from the governments of Nigeria and Sudan for a Bank-sponsored consortium focused on pledging amounts of aid that could be provided by donor members. The Bank and its aid-providing members recommended that a consultative group was the appropriate mechanism for coordinating external aid to each of the countries. The group would meet informally as particular needs arose and provide a forum in which members could discuss the assistance they were considering, and recipient countries could keep the other members informed about development plans, policies and projects. The Nigeria Consultative Group was formally established in April 1962 and the Sudan Consultative Group was convened on November 27, 1963.

Most of the functions involved in the operation of a consultative group were already carried out by Bank department staff in its relations with countries, however they would perform these functions "more intensively or more frequently" when sponsoring groups. The operations of the groups varied according to its different circumstances but in most cases the Bank's responsibilities were, as defined in 1965: providing periodic, comprehensive reports on the country's development possibilities, problems, and performance as a basis for the consultative group's deliberations; analyzing the country's aid requirements and problematic debt commitments, and recommending types and terms of aid; assisting the recipient government to prepare or revise a development program or advise on problems in its implementation; assisting in identifying projects and other technical assistance and arranging for feasibility studies; and advising participants on which sectors and projects deserve priority for external funding. The role of the group's chairman, typically the Area or Country Director, encouraged dialogue at meetings and coordinated donor efforts to meet the country's financing needs. The department also drafted the minutes or summary of proceedings and the list of delegates of group meetings. These functions essentially remained unchanged through 1999.

Resident country and regional missions were also established in Africa beginning in 1964. That year, the World Bank opened its first African Resident Mission office in Ethiopia. An office in Nairobi, Kenya followed in 1965. In 1965 a West African office in Abidjan, Ivory Coast, was opened; an East African office in Nairobi, Kenya, opened the following year. The principal function of these regional offices was to assist these new members with the identification and preparation of development projects.

In 1965 the World Bank implemented a major reorganization of country groupings in its regional departments. AFR was not effected with the exception that northern African countries (including Egypt, Libya, Algeria, Tunisia, and Morocco) were moved into the Europe and Middle East Department (EME). Note that these countries have since remained in regional units responsible for Middle East countries. In 1965 the Department of Operations - Africa was also renamed the Africa Department (AFR). Abdel G. El Emary served as Department Director from 1965 to 1968.

In October 1968, due to the increased volume of lending operations anticipated over the next several years, the World Bank executed a major reorganization of its regional departments. Due to the rapid increase in African member countries in the 1960s, AFR was divided into two separate departments: Eastern Africa Department (EAF) and Western Africa Department (WAF). The functions of the two units remained unchanged from their predecessor. Each new department was composed ofseveral divisions. EAF contained three divisions upon its creation and had increased to five by 1972. WAF contained five divisions during this period. EAF was led by Abdel G. El Emary from 1968 to 1970 and Michael L. Lejeune from 1970 to 1972. The Director of WAF was Roger Chaufournier from 1968 to 1972.

1972 - 1987

From the time he became World Bank president in 1968, President Robert McNamara led the Bank towards an increased focus on extreme poverty and an emphasis on the agricultural, rural, and transportation sectors. The agriculture sector had always been the primary focus of investment for the Bank in Africa, but in the 1970s this investment grew significantly. The types of agriculture, rural development, and transportation projects were also altered in terms of scope and scale. Whereas in the past many projects aimed to provide local and small-scale lending, in the 1970s lending began to support regional development projects, focusing on fertilizer use, the expansion of rural road networks, and agricultural research (often through the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research [CGIAR]).

McNamara's vision for the Bank was manifested in a massive, Bank-wide reorganization completed in 1972. As part of the reorganization, the geographic organization of the Regional units was again altered. The seven departments that made up the Area Departments were elevated to five Regional Vice Presidencies (RVP). The organization of Africa into two separate units was maintained in the form of the Eastern Africa Vice Presidency (EAN) and the Western Africa Vice Presidency (WAN). All RVPs reported to the new Senior Vice President, Operations (SVPOP).

A more significant aspect of the reorganization, however, was the integration of the former Technical Operations Department (renamed the Projects Division [PRJ] in 1965) with the new RVPs. The period between 1952 and 1972 had been characterized by frequent reorganizations of the geographically-based area units responsible for country liaison and loan policy and negotiation. However, the division of responsibility between these units and TOD/PRJ was maintained. But in 1972, in an attempt to more effectively fuse country knowledge and sectoral skills, the reorganization removed most of the Bank's operational project work from the Projects Department to the five new Regional Vice Presidencies. Staff from the former PRJ were distributed into the Regional Vice Presidencies and were organized into sector-oriented Project Departments and were known as Central Projects Staff. Thus, rather than one Projects Department that supported projects in countries on an ad hoc basis, each RVP would maintain its own projects staff. Each RVP was, in turn, given "line authority" to analyze, decide and act on country development operations. Each RVP was responsible for planning and executing IBRD/IDA development assistance programs subject to the overall framework of Bank policies, priorities, and operating procedures. The RVPs created regional plans and budgets, ensured the effective implementation of approved plans, created country economic and sector reports, and developed and implemented loan, credit, technical assistance, and other forms of development projects. The RVPs were also responsible for maintaining sound relations with governments of assigned countries and with aid organizations and donors involved in those countries.

Upon the completion of the 1972 reorganization, EAN and WAN consisted of two Country Program Departments in addition to the new Projects Department. TheCountry Program Departments were staffed by country economists and loan officers whose primary responsibilities were: conducting area reviews of Bank activities and countries' economic and political developments; formulating country lending and economic and sector work programs and implementing country programs; and reviewing loan applications, negotiating loans, and administering loans.

The Projects Department provided technical assistance and advice to members and borrowers on sectoral issues, countrypriorities, and project development from identification through implementation and review. It consisted of economists, financial analysts, and sector specialists, and was specifically responsible for: creating sector policies; assisting countries with the identification and preparation of projects; appraising potential projects and assisting the Country Program Departments in loan negotiation and credit agreements; and helping borrowers manage consultants and procurement. Both EAN and WAN's Project Departments were initially divided into four sector-based divisions: Agriculture; Education; Public Utilities; and Transportation. Over the next fifteen years, new divisions were created for sectors such as energy, water, telecommunications, industry, finance, and urban.

Note that not all staff and operational responsibility was transferred from the former PRJ to the RVPs. Staff in sectors too small to decentralize to the five regions continued to provide a complete "operational package" of technical services to the regions. These units, such as the Population and Nutrition sector and Urban Projects sector, were known as Central Operating Projects Departments and were located in the newly formed Vice President, Central Projects (CPSVP) which, like the RVPs, reported to the SVPOP. In addition, those former PRJ units which had their operational functions dispersed to the RVPs still maintained a core staff in the CPSVP with responsibility for policy and advisory work only.

Throughout the 1970s, Bank lending to Africaincreased, particularly in the agriculture and rural development sectors, but also in the urban development and industry sectors. However, by late in the decade many in the Bank and in member countries grew increasingly frustrated due to a lack of growth in many African countries. In 1979 the Bank's African governors asked for a special report describing the challenges of the region and the Bank's proposed solutions. In response the Bank published Accelerated Development in Sub-Saharan Africa: An Agenda for Action in August 1981. The report discussed factors that led to slow economic growth in Africa in the recent past, analyzed policy changes and program orientation needed to promote faster growth, and concluded with a set of recommendations to donors, including doubling aid to the continent and increased reliance on structural and sectoral adjustment lending.

In order to achieve the increase in investment prescribed by the 1981 report, the Bank integrated alternative ways to raise and inject funds into the region. This involved a greater reliance on cofinancing to the point that, by the middle of the decade, more than half of Bank-financed projects in Africa included cofinancing. A Special Facility for Sub-Saharan Africa meeting was also convened in Paris in January 1985 where over a billion dollars was raised for the provision of fast-disbursing and untied (i.e procurement is not contingent upon the purchase of goods and services from the donor country) financing for the continent. In 1987 the Special Program of Assistance to Africa (SPA) was launched. Its objectives included: mobilizing resources and coordinating support for economic reforms in Africa; streamlining donor procedures; and monitoring adjustment programs for efficacy.

Roger Chaufournier continued to serve as head of the new WAN following the 1972 reorganization and would do so until 1980. He was succeeded by A. David Knox, from1980 to 1984, and Wilfried A. Thalwitz, from 1984 to 1987. Bernard R. Bell was named the Regional Vice President of EAN in 1972. He was succeed by S. Shahid Husain, from 1974 to 1976, and Willi A. Wapenhans, from 1977 to 1984. In 1985, due to shifts in country memberships, EAN was renamed the Eastern and Southern Africa Vice Presidency (ESA). The division of African countries between WAN and the new ESA did not change. Edward V. K. Jaycox served as Vice President of ESA from 1985 until 1987.

1987 - 1996

While the composition of the Country Program Departments and Projects Department changed between 1972 and 1987 (most notably with a considerable increase in the number of Projects Department sector divisions), the organization and functions of the RVPs was consistent until 1987. In July of 1987, however, a Bank-wide reorganization under President Barber Conable altered the structure of the RVPs considerably. The changes were brought on by a desire to strengthen the Bank's country focus by making the Country Department the basic program and budget unit.

The new Country Departments that replaced the Country Program Departments combined the macro-economic work of the former Country Program Departments and the sector work of the former Regional Projects Department. Each Country Department would consist of a Country Operations Division (COD) as well as multiple Sectoral Operations Divisions (SOD) made up of staff from the former Regional Projects Departments. The COD was composed of lead, country, and specialized economists as well as country officers and was responsible for: liaising with state governments and developing knowledge of issues in the country; preparing and supervising the country's aid strategy; and providing full responsibility for certain country-wide operations such as Structural Adjustment Loans and country economic work. SODs were responsible for overall sectoral strategy and for planning, programming and implementing development activities for the countries in their respective sectoral specialties; this would include the provision of full lending project management as well as lending and sector evaluation work.

Not all staff was moved from each Region's Project Department into the Country Departments' SODs. Those remaining formed a new Regional Technical Department within each RVP. It was responsible for higher level knowledge collection, assessment, and dissemination. The Technical Department, which was organized into sector-focused divisions, was to stimulate innovation in operational work and undertake strategic thinking by providing advice, operational support, regional studies, staff training and the dissemination of materials to Bank staff, donors, and other institutions outside the Bank. The Department would continue to offer operational help in the form of task management, task support, and advice. They would also work closely with Policy, Planning and Research (PPR) staff in conducting regional studies and reviews and advising on sector policy and research priorities.

A subsequent reorganization in 1993 strengthened the Country Departments' SODs through unit reorganization and a transfer of staff from the Regional Technical Departments to the SODs. The Technical Departments were greatly reduced in size and were restructured to reflect the emphasis on sectoral and thematic responsibilities of the SODs. The Technical Departments operational support function was consequently reduced.

During the 1987 reorganization the number of RVPs was decreased from six to four. This involved the merger of the Eastern and Southern Africa Vice Presidency (ESA) and the Western Africa Vice Presidency (WAN) into a single Africa Vice Presidency (AFR). AFR initially contained six Country Departments and a single Technical Department. Another reorganization of the Bank's RVPs occurred in 1991 and involved the expansion of the four RVPs into six. However, AFR was not affected by the change. Edward V. K. Jaycox assumed the role of Vice President of AFR until 1996. Jean-Louis Sarbib replaced him in 1996.

1996 - 2014

In November 1996 the World Bank released Taking Action to Reduce Poverty in Sub-Saharan Africa. The document reported on the Africa Region's Poverty Task Force. It also outlined specific actions that the Bank should take, suggesting an intensified emphasis on poverty reduction in Bank programming and lending, and the establishment of stronger partnerships for poverty reduction.

Another reorganization in 1996-97 modified the changes made to the RVPs in 1987 and 1993. The RVP continued to be responsible for all aspects of country development assistance for its member countries, including: country assistance strategy; lending operations; technical assistance operations; and economic and sector work. However, the primary objective of the reorganization was to deepen the country focus and responsiveness to client needs. This was accomplished in a number of ways. The most striking changes concerned the new Country Management Units (CMUs) which replaced the former Country Departments. The CMUs were smaller than their predecessor (that is, each was responsible for a smaller number of countries) while their number correspondingly increased. The internal reorganization of AFR resulted in an increase from five Country Departments in May 1996 to sixteen CMUs in November of the same year.

In addition, an increased decentralization of CMU staff and country directors from Bank headquarters in Washington to locations within client countries was undertaken. At the same time, a strengthening of authority with regard to strategy and budget was given to the country directors. The CMUs continued to be responsible for overall preparation and supervision of the country's assistance strategy, full lending project management, and evaluation of lending and sector work.

During the reorganization, the former Technical Departments were changed into Sector or Technical Families. The role of the Technical Families, which consisted of sector and project economists and selected specialist staff, was to formulate knowledge on technical subjects and best practice and to suggest innovation through research and development. A Technical Families group was placed alongside a number of CMUs within each Regional Vice Presidency.

As part of the 1996 reorganization, Edward V. K. Jaycox was replaced by two co-Vice Presidents for the Africa Region: Jean-Louis Sarbib and Callisto E. Madavo. This new arrangement effectively split the region into West Africa and Eastern and Southern Africa with one new VP responsible for each. This arrangement lasted until 2000, when Sarbib became the new Regional Vice President of Middle East and North Africa (MNA), leaving Madavo as the sole VP for AFR. Madavo was subsequently replaced by Gobind Nankani in 2004. Obiageli Ezekwesili was appointed to the position in 2007 and was replaced by Makhtar Diop in 2012.

2014 - Present

In order to stimulate the sharing of knowledge and best practices across the Bank, President Jim Kim introduced a Bank-wide reorganization in 2014 that removed sector staff from the Regional Vice Presidencies and placed them in one of fourteen Global Practices (GPs) or five Cross-Cutting Solution Areas (CCSAs). The GPs are responsible for each of the major thematic areas that the Bank supports through projects, such as agriculture, water, and education. Each GP functions as a vertical pillar of technical expertise and is responsible for: defining the strategic direction and the World Bank's activity in their respective sector; developing and deploying expertise globally; delivering integrated solutions to client countries; and capturing and leveraging knowledge in their respective fields. The CCSAs, on the other hand, serve as horizontal pillars providing leadership in areas such as climate change, gender, and public-private partnerships and focusing on Bank-wide strategic goals and directions.

After the 2014 reorganization, the Regional Vice Presidencies exclusive function became the overall client engagement. Specifically, each RVP: sets and drives regional strategic direction; offers development solutions to clients; agrees on work program and budget with GPs and recruits expert GP staff to meet client needs; manages corporate and other stakeholder relationships; and oversees country programs. Each RVP retained multiple Country Management Unit (CMUs) responsible for one or more countries. The CMU is the primary interface with the country and is responsible for ensuring global solutions areapplied to the local context. Specifically, the CMU: identifies client challenges and opportunities; sets country strategy and manages selectivity; develops work programs and provides solutions; manages client and stakeholder relationships; and manages the country office.

The number of RVPs did not change as a result of the 2014 reorganization nor did the country make-up of each RVP. Makhtar Diop served as Vice President of the Africa Region throughout the reorganization.